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Branches of Philosophy
(XI)
Lacan agreed with Derrida and Foucault about the need to overturn crucial
cultural and philosophical assumptions, but he arrived at this conclusion by
a different method altogether. Influenced by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
Saussure and the psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud, Lacan claimed
that the unconscious portion of the mind operates with structures and rules
analogous to those of a language. He used this claim to criticize both
psychoanalytic theory and philosophy. On the one hand, he believed that
concepts from linguistics could clarify and correct Freud’s picture of the
mind and provide the field of psychoanalysis with greater philosophical
depth. On the other hand, he maintained that applying psychoanalytic methods
and theories to linguistics would radically revise traditional philosophical
views of language and reason.
Feminist Philosophy
Feminist philosophers also challenge basic principles of traditional Western
philosophy, investigating how philosophical inquiry would change if women
conducted it and if it incorporated women’s experiences as well as their
viewpoints. In interpreting the history of Western philosophy, feminists
study texts by male philosophers for their depiction of women, masculine
values, and biases toward men. Feminist philosophers also write about
women’s experiences of subjectivity, their relationship to their bodies, and
feminist concepts of language, knowledge, and nature. They explore
connections between feminism in philosophy and other emerging feminist
disciplines, such as feminist legal theory, feminist theology, and
ecological feminism. Central to feminist philosophy is the concept of the
oppression of women who live in patriarchal (male-controlled) societies;
much of the work of feminist philosophers has gone into understanding
patriarchy and developing alternatives to it. Prominent feminist
philosophers include French postmodern philosophers Luce Irigaray and Hélène
Cixous and American philosopher of law Catharine MacKinnon.
Environmental Philosophy
Environmental philosophy is concerned with issues that arise when human
beings interact with the environment. For instance, is a transformation of
society necessary for the survival of living organisms and the environment?
How is the exploitation of nature related to the subjugation of women and
other oppressed humans? How can the philosophical study of the environment
guide and inspire effective environmental activism. Most environmental
philosophers seek to apply philosophical methods and ideas in collaboration
with academics and activists working in the environmental sciences,
theology, and feminism.
Two figures who played a prominent role in founding environmental philosophy
are Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess and American naturalist,
conservationist, and philosopher Aldo Leopold. Naess founded the so-called
deep-ecology movement in the 1970s. The movement distinguishes between
shallow ecology, which views nature in terms of its value to human beings,
and deep ecology, which values nature independently of its usefulness to
humanity. Leopold, in his influential book A Sand County Almanac (1949),
called for the extension of ethical concern to include all life on Earth,
not just human life. Other contemporary environmental philosophers include
American ecological theologian Thomas Berry and American ecological feminist
Karen Warren.
Contemporary Political Philosophy
Political philosophy dates back to Plato and Aristotle who discussed the
nature of the ideal government and the ideal society. It continued in
theories on individual liberty and political institutions put forth by
Hobbes, Mill, and Rousseau. Political philosophy today features a lively
dialogue between defenders of the liberal position and defenders of the
communitarian position. The former place the highest value on individual
liberties; whereas the latter argue that extreme individual freedom
undermines shared community values.
According to liberalism the chief goods (benefits) of government and society
are personal and political freedoms, such as freedom of speech, freedom of
association, and freedom of conscience (belief). Many liberal theorists view
the freedom to make moral choices as the most important freedom; they argue
that political and social systems should be organized to allow individuals
the freedom to pursue their own ideas about “the good life.” Communitarians
respond that granting individuals this extreme freedom of choice ultimately
limits human experience by undermining shared communal values. They claim
that by ignoring the importance of community, liberalism disregards
humanity’s social nature.
Prominent communitarians include Scottish philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre and
American philosopher Michael Sandel. Important liberal theorists include
British philosopher Isaiah Berlin and American philosophers Ronald Dworkin
and John Rawls. Rawls is the author of A Theory of Justice (1971),
considered to be the most significant work of political philosophy in the
20th century. In this book, he presents the idea of “justice as fairness,” a
principle that promotes the equal distribution of the benefits and burdens
of society among individuals. Any advantages that society confers should
benefit those who are most disadvantaged, Rawls believes. From this and
other principles he has developed theories about political and social
relations within liberal democracies and between those democracies and
certain illiberal states. Rawls’s ideas remain a major inspiration for much
current work in political philosophy.
Applied Ethics
Although most contemporary philosophy is highly technical and inaccessible
to nonspecialists, some contemporary philosophers concern themselves with
practical questions and strive to influence today’s culture. Practitioners
of feminist philosophy, environmental philosophy, and some areas of
contemporary political philosophy seek to use the tools of philosophy to
resolve current issues directly related to peoples’ lives. Nowhere have
philosophers more enthusiastically embraced practical relevance than in
contemporary applied ethics, a field that has developed since the 1960s.
Most of the questions applied ethicists raise concern the general theme “How
should we live and die?”—a question central to ancient Greek philosophy.
Separate areas of specialization, such as biomedical ethics and business
ethics, have emerged within applied ethics. Biomedical ethics deals with
questions arising from the life sciences and human health care, and has two
subspecialties: bioethics and medical ethics. Bioethicists study the ethical
implications of advances in genetics and biotechnology, such as genetic
testing, genetic privacy, cloning, and new reproductive technologies. For
example, they consider the consequences for individuals who learn they have
inherited a fatal genetic disease, or the consequences of technology that
enables parents to choose the sex of a baby. Bioethicists then offer advice
to legislators, researchers, and physicians active in these areas.
Specialists in medical ethics offer advice to physicians, other health care
personnel, and patients on a wide variety of issues, including abortion,
euthanasia, fertility treatments, medical confidentiality, and the
allocation of scarce medical resources. Much of the work in medical ethics
directly affects the everyday practice of medicine, and most nursing
students and medical students now take courses in this field.
Business ethicists bring ethical theories and techniques to bear on moral
issues that arise in business. For example, what are the responsibilities of
corporations to their employees, their customers, their shareholders, and
the environment? Most business students take courses in business ethics, and
many large corporations regularly consult with specialists in the field.
Business ethicists also address larger topics, such as the ethics of
globalization and the moral justification of various economic systems, such
as capitalism and socialism.
Culled from Encarta.
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SATURDAY, NOVEMBER
25 2006